With the explosion in the number of computers on the Internet, the limitations of IPv4 are becoming apparent. First and foremost, the number of available IPv4 addresses is being exhausted. This has led to the use of network address translators (NATs), which map multiple private addresses to a single public IP addresses. NATs are useful for client-server applications but can be problematic when connecting two organizations that use the private address space. Also, NATs must sometimes be aware of the underlying protocols to perform the appropriate address translation.
Second, IPv4 addressing is not entirely hierarchical, which means that the Internet backbone routers must maintain vast routing tables to deliver IPv4 packets correctly to any location on the Internet.
Another incentive for developing IPv6 is to provide simpler configuration. With IPv4, addresses must be assigned statically or via a configuration protocol such as DHCP. Ideally, hosts would not have to rely upon the administration of a DHCP infrastructure. Instead, they will be able to auto configure themselves based on the network segment on which they are located.
A developer-release version of IPv6 is provided with Windows XP. For Windows 2000, a technology preview IPv6 protocol is available for download fromhttp://www.microsoft.com/ipv6. For Windows NT 4.0, a Microsoft Research IPv6 protocol may also be obtained from http://www.microsoft.com/ipv6.
In this section, we will cover the different types of IPv6 addresses, the support protocols that IPv6 uses, and how IPv6 addresses are handled from Winsock. Although we will discuss addressing and name resolution, we will not cover all aspects of IPv6, such as routing or setting up an IPv6 network. For more information, consult the Windows XP online help or the book Understanding IPv6, by Joseph Davies (Microsoft Press, 2002).
Addressing :
The most noticeable difference between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses is that an IPv6 address is 128 bits, which is four times larger than an IPv4 address. One reason for such a large address space is to subdivide the available addresses into a hierarchy of routing domains that reflect the Internet's topology. Table 3-2 lists a portion of how the address space is allocated and lists the address prefix for each portion. The address prefix denotes the high order bits of an IPv6 address. IPv6 addressing is described in RFC 2373.
An IPv6 address is typically expressed in 16-bit chunks displayed as hexadecimal numbers separated by colons. The following is an example of an IPv6 address :
Leading zeroes within each 16-bit block may be removed, as seen here:
Many IPv6 addresses contain long sequences of zeroes, which may be compressed by substituting two colons for the block of zeros. For example, the following address :
can be compressed to:
Note that only a single contiguous sequence of 16-bit zero blocks may be compressed.
Depending on the platform, you can use one of two methods to obtain a list of the IPv6 addresses assigned to a computer's interfaces. For the Microsoft Research and Windows 2000 Technology Preview stacks downloaded from the Web as well as Windows XP Home Edition and Windows XP Professional, the IPV6.EXE command is used. To enumerate the IPv6 interfaces, execute IPV6.EXE if at the command prompt. For all versions of Windows 2000 and Windows XP (including future versions of Windows releases), the NETSH.EXE command may also be used. The command syntax is: NETSH.EXE > interface > IPv6 >show interface. To programmatically obtain the configuration of local interfaces, the SIO_ADDRESS_LIST_QUERY ioctl (Chapter 7) and the IP Helper API (Chapter 16) can be used :
There are three basic types of IPv6 addresses: unicast, anycast, and multicast. Note that IPv6 does not define a broadcast address (multicasting is used instead). In the following sections, we will discuss each address type.
Unicast :
A unicast address identifies a single interface. With IPv6, however, an interface will most likely have more than one unicast address assigned to it. There are four types of unicast addresses that you will likely encounter :
An interface will always have a link-local address assigned to it—each physical network interface is auto configured with one. A link-local address is used to communicate only with other nodes on the same link. Link-local address always begin with an fe80::/64 prefix. Also, because no routing information is kept for link-local addresses, the interface index is often displayed with the address. Every physical interface on the system is assigned an adapter index number (also known as a scope ID). When a link-local address is assigned to an interface, the link number is appended to the address. The following address is the link-local address assigned to the physical adapter whose interface index number is five :
In Winsock, if a connection is being established using link-local addresses, then the interface index must be present to indicate which link the remote host is reachable from. An IPv6 link-local address is synonymous with an IPv4 APIPA address discussed earlier in this chapter.
For example, consider host A, which has the link-local address fe80::250:8bff:fea0:92ed%5 and host B, which has the link-local address fe80::250:daff:fec3:9e34%4. If host A issues a connect to host B, it would use the destination address of B with its own scope ID that can reach host B. The address to connect to would be fe80::250:daff:fec3:9e34%5.
Site-local addresses are IPv6 addresses that are reachable only on the local network environment, such as the corporate network at a particular site. These addresses are comparable to the IPv4 private address space because they cannot be reached from other sites or the Internet and routers on the private network do not forward this traffic beyond the local site. Site-local addresses use the prefix fec0::/48. Site-local addresses must be assigned from either an IPv6 router or via DHCPv6. Currently, Microsoft's implementation of IPv6 does not support DHCPv6. IPv6-enabled routers will send Router Advertisement (RA) messages, which advertise the network portion of the address (such as the first 64 bits of the address consisting of the 48-bit site-local prefix and a 16-bit subnet ID), which the host will then use to assign a site-local address to the interface on which the RA was received.
Global addresses are just that: globally reachable on IPv6 Internet. Global addresses begin with 001. The remaining 61 bits of the first 64 bits are used to establish a routing hierarchy, and the last 64 bits comprise the interface identifier that uniquely identifies a network interface on a subnet. Global addresses are also assigned via router advertisements or by using DHCPv6.
The last type of unicast addresses are compatibility addresses, which are designed to aid in the transition from IPv4 to IPv6. There are four kinds of compatibility addresses that Windows supports: Intrasite Automatic Tunnel Addressing Protocol (ISATAP), 6to4, 6over4, and IPv4 compatible. ISATAP addresses can be derived from any IPv6 unicast address, such as link-local, site-local, and global addresses. Most often you will see an ISATAP address derived from a link-local address. These addresses also contain an embedded IPv4 address. For example, the ISATAP address fe80::5efe:172.17.7.2 is a link-local address and contains the IPv4 address of the host (172.17.7.2). When data is sent from this interface, the IPv6 packet is encapsulated within an IPv4 header. The IPv4 destination address is obtained from the v4 address embedded within the IPv6 ISATAP destination address. The v4 address must be globally reachable for two endpoints to communicate via automatic tunneling. ISATAP addresses are currently an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) draft.
The second type of compatibility address is called 6to4 and is described in RFC 3056. 6to4 addresses use the global prefix 2002:WWXX:YYZZ::/48, in which WWXX:YYZZ is the hexadecimal-colon representation of w.x.y.z, a public IPv4 address. 6to4 allows IPv6/IPv4 hosts to communicate over an IPv4 routing infrastructure.
Windows XP provides a 6to4 service. This service allows hosts to communicate with other 6to4 hosts within the same site, 6to4 hosts connected to the Internet, 6to4 hosts in other sites across the IPv4 Internet, as well as with hosts on the IPv6 Internet using a 6to4 relay router. On Windows XP, the 6to4 service is configured to run automatically. If there is a public IPv4 address assigned to an interface, a 6to4 Tunneling Interface (interface index 3) is created and assigned the 6to4 address(es).
The third type of compatibility address is 6over4, which is a tunneling technique using IPv4 multicasting. It allows IPv4 and IPv6 nodes to communicate using IPv6 over an IPv4 infrastructure. This technique is described in RFC 2529.
The last type of compatibility address is the IPv4 compatible address. These addresses take the form of 0:0:0:0:0:0:w.x.y.z (or ::w.x.y.z) in which w.x.y.z is the dotted decimal representation of a public IPv4 address. When a IPv4 compatible address is used by an application as the destination, the IPv6 traffic is automatically encapsulated within an IPv4 header and sent to the destination over the IPv4 network.
Anycast :
Anycast is an address that identifies multiple interfaces. The purpose of these addresses is to route packets destined to an anycast address to the nearest interface assigned that anycast address. A good scenario for anycast addresses is when there are several nodes on the network that provide a certain service. Each machine can be assigned the same anycast address and clients interested in contacting that service will be routed to the nearest member. This is different from multicast because this communication is one to one of many instead of one to many. Currently however, anycast addresses are assigned to routers only.
Multicast :
Multicasting in IPv6 is similar to IPv4 multicasting. A process joins a multicast group on a particular interface and data destined to that multicast address is received. IPv6 multicast addresses begin with 1111 1111 (FF). IPv6 multicasting and IPv6 multicast addresses are covered in more detail in Chapter 9.
IPv6 Management Protocols :
IPv6 requires only a single helper protocol: Internet Control Message Protocol for IPv6 (ICMPv6), which is defined in RFC 2463. ICMPv6 provides the same types of services that ICMP does, such as destination unreachable, echo and echo reply, but also provides a mechanism for Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) and Neighbor Discovery (ND). MLD replaces IGMP and ND replaces ARP.
Addressing IPv6 from Winsock :
To specify IPv6 addresses in Winsock applications, the following structure is used :
- struct sockaddr_in6 {
- short sin6_family;
- u_short sin6_port;
- u_long sin6_flowinfo;
- struct in6_addr sin6_addr;
- u_long sin6_scope_id;
- };
One last item to note is that the SOCKADDR_IN6 structure is 28 bytes in length and the SOCKADDR and SOCKADDR_IN structures are only 16 bytes long.
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